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Writing Arguments
Steps to Writing an Argument
Develop Your Argument
When you develop your argument, you are confirming your own position, and building your case for the readers. Use empirical evidence鈥攆acts and statistics鈥攖o support your claims. Appeal to your audience鈥檚 rational and logical thinking. Argue your case from the authority of your evidence and research.
Your list of strengths and weaknesses can help you develop your argument. Here is how to do that:
First, prioritize the strengths and weaknesses of each position and then decide on the top three to five strengths and weaknesses.听
Then, using a technique for developing content ideas, begin to expand your understanding of each item on your list (see the section in chapter鈥2 titled 鈥Techniques to Get Started鈥).听
Evaluate each one in terms of how you can support it鈥攂y reasoning, providing details, adding an example, or offering evidence.听
Again, prioritize your list of strengths and weaknesses, this time noting the supporting comments that need more work, call for more evidence, or may be irrelevant to your argument. At this stage, it is better to overlook nothing and keep extensive notes for later reference.
As you develop your ideas, remember that you are presenting them in a fair-minded and rational way, counting on your readers鈥 intelligence, experience, and insight to evaluate your argument and see your point of view.
Techniques for Appealing to Your Readers
The success of your argument depends on your skill in convincing your readers鈥攖hrough sound reasoning, persuasion, and evidence鈥攐f the strength of your point of view. But how can you do that in the most effective way? There are three fundamental types of appeal in presenting an argument:鈥痳eason, ethics,鈥痑nd鈥痚motion.鈥疉s a writer, use all three of these techniques in your writing.听
But let鈥檚 learn more about these types of appeal:
- Reason
- Ethics
- Emotion
Clear thinking requires that you state your claim and support it with concrete, specific facts. This approach appeals to our common sense and rational thinking.听
Formal reasoning involves following certain established logical methods to arrive at certain pieces of information or conclusions. Generally, these logical methods are known as鈥痠nductive reasoning and鈥痙eductive reasoning.
What is inductive reasoning? Inductive thinking is when our logical thinking states specific facts (called鈥痯remises) and then draws a conclusion, or generalization. Inductive reasoning鈥痩ets us examine the specific details, considering how well they add up to the generalization. When we think inductively, we are asking whether the evidence clearly supports the conclusions.
Example of Inductive Reasoning
Premise: Swans nest near this pond every summer.
Hypothesis: This summer, swans will probably nest near this pond.
听
What is deductive reasoning?鈥疘n deductive reasoning, you take two premises to create a conclusion based on reasoning and evidence. When we think logically, we start with the generalization. As we apply our generalization to a specific situation, we examine the individual premises that make that generalization reasonable or unreasonable. When our logical thinking starts with the generalization, or conclusion, we may then apply the generalization to a particular situation to see if that generalization follows from the premises. Our deductive thinking can be expressed as a鈥syllogism鈥痮r an鈥enthymeme鈥攁 shortened form of the syllogism.
听
Syllogisms can be written like this:
All A are B.
All C are A.
Therefore, all C are B.
听
Example of Deductive Reasoning Using a Syllogism:
Major premise: All birds have feathers.
Minor premise: A parrot is a bird.
Conclusion: A parrot has feathers.
听
Enthymemes can be written like this:
If A=B and B=C, then A=C.听
听
But with enthymemes, B=C is implied.
听
Example of Deductive Reasoning Using an Enthymeme:
Major premise: All birds have feathers.
Conclusion: A parrot is a bird.
(We assume that a parrot has feathers)
Think of鈥痚thics鈥痑s the force of a speaker鈥檚 character as it is represented in writing. If you misrepresent the evidence of one of your sources, your readers will question your ethics.听
听
In any situation in which you must rely on your readers鈥 goodwill and common sense, you will lose their open-minded stance toward your argument if you support it by using unethical methods. This can happen intentionally, by misrepresenting evidence and experts and by seeking to hurt individuals or groups. It can also happen unintentionally鈥攜ou may undermine your argument by inadvertently misunderstanding the evidence and the implications of your position. This can occur if you don鈥檛 research the evidence responsibly, preferring instead to express your own and others鈥 unfounded opinions.
Using emotions as a support for argument can be tricky. Attempts to play on your readers鈥 emotions can seem manipulative and are often mistrusted. To use emotional appeal successfully, you must apply discretion and restraint. Choose examples that represent and illustrate your ideas fairly, and then present your arguments as objectively as possible. The writer must carefully draw the connections between the ideas and illustrations, choosing diction in such a way that readers don鈥檛 question motives as manipulative. Strong evidence accumulated by careful research often addresses this potential problem well.
Example of an Appeal to Emotion
Rather than continuing these tax-and-spend policies, we plan to return your hard-earned tax money to you.
Clear thinking requires that you state your claim and support it with concrete, specific facts. This approach appeals to our common sense and rational thinking.听
Formal reasoning involves following certain established logical methods to arrive at certain pieces of information or conclusions. Generally, these logical methods are known as鈥痠nductive reasoning and鈥痙eductive reasoning.
What is inductive reasoning? Inductive thinking is when our logical thinking states specific facts (called鈥痯remises) and then draws a conclusion, or generalization. Inductive reasoning鈥痩ets us examine the specific details, considering how well they add up to the generalization. When we think inductively, we are asking whether the evidence clearly supports the conclusions.
Example of Inductive Reasoning
Premise: Swans nest near this pond every summer.
Hypothesis: This summer, swans will probably nest near this pond.
听
What is deductive reasoning?鈥疘n deductive reasoning, you take two premises to create a conclusion based on reasoning and evidence. When we think logically, we start with the generalization. As we apply our generalization to a specific situation, we examine the individual premises that make that generalization reasonable or unreasonable. When our logical thinking starts with the generalization, or conclusion, we may then apply the generalization to a particular situation to see if that generalization follows from the premises. Our deductive thinking can be expressed as a鈥syllogism鈥痮r an鈥enthymeme鈥攁 shortened form of the syllogism.
听
Syllogisms can be written like this:
All A are B.
All C are A.
Therefore, all C are B.
听
Example of Deductive Reasoning Using a Syllogism:
Major premise: All birds have feathers.
Minor premise: A parrot is a bird.
Conclusion: A parrot has feathers.
听
Enthymemes can be written like this:
If A=B and B=C, then A=C.听
听
But with enthymemes, B=C is implied.
听
Example of Deductive Reasoning Using an Enthymeme:
Major premise: All birds have feathers.
Conclusion: A parrot is a bird.
(We assume that a parrot has feathers)
Think of鈥痚thics鈥痑s the force of a speaker鈥檚 character as it is represented in writing. If you misrepresent the evidence of one of your sources, your readers will question your ethics.听
听
In any situation in which you must rely on your readers鈥 goodwill and common sense, you will lose their open-minded stance toward your argument if you support it by using unethical methods. This can happen intentionally, by misrepresenting evidence and experts and by seeking to hurt individuals or groups. It can also happen unintentionally鈥攜ou may undermine your argument by inadvertently misunderstanding the evidence and the implications of your position. This can occur if you don鈥檛 research the evidence responsibly, preferring instead to express your own and others鈥 unfounded opinions.
Using emotions as a support for argument can be tricky. Attempts to play on your readers鈥 emotions can seem manipulative and are often mistrusted. To use emotional appeal successfully, you must apply discretion and restraint. Choose examples that represent and illustrate your ideas fairly, and then present your arguments as objectively as possible. The writer must carefully draw the connections between the ideas and illustrations, choosing diction in such a way that readers don鈥檛 question motives as manipulative. Strong evidence accumulated by careful research often addresses this potential problem well.
Example of an Appeal to Emotion
Rather than continuing these tax-and-spend policies, we plan to return your hard-earned tax money to you.
Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing
-
How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing? -
What Is College Writing? -
Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?
-
Doing Exploratory Research -
Getting from Notes to Your Draft -
Introduction -
Prewriting -
Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition -
Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience -
Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started -
Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment -
Rewriting -
Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic -
Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy -
Rewriting: Getting Feedback -
Rewriting: The Final Draft -
Techniques to Get Started - Outlining -
Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques -
Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea -
Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting -
Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas -
Writing: Outlining What You Will Write
-
A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone -
A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction -
Critical Strategies and Writing -
Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis -
Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation -
Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion -
Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis -
Developing a Paper Using Strategies -
Introduction -
Kinds of Assignments You Will Write -
Patterns for Presenting Information -
Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques -
Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data -
Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern -
Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern -
Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern -
Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts -
Supporting with Research and Examples -
Writing Essay Examinations -
Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete -
Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing -
Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question
-
Introduction -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature -
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing -
Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources -
Research Resources: What Are Research Resources? -
Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? -
Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources -
Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources -
Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure -
Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure -
The Nature of Research -
The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated? -
The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed? -
The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?
-
91直播 Integrity -
Giving Credit to Sources -
Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws -
Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation -
Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides -
Integrating Sources -
Practicing 91直播 Integrity -
Practicing 91直播 Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records -
Practicing 91直播 Integrity: Managing Source Material -
Practicing 91直播 Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source -
Practicing 91直播 Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source -
Practicing 91直播 Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources -
Types of Documentation -
Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists -
Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources -
Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations -
Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style -
Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style -
Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style -
Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style -
Types of Documentation: Note Citations
-
Introduction -
Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews -
Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers -
Writing Arguments -
Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure -
Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument -
Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments -
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition -
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization -
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument -
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument -
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition -
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion -
Writing Arguments: Types of Argument
Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing
Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing
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Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project -
Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report -
Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve -
Collaborative Writing: Methodology -
Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation -
Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members -
Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan -
Conclusion -
General Introduction -
Peer Reviewing